Coolant Flow Rate Research Articles

Numerical simulation for non-uniform PtCo catalyst degradation under different coolant conditions and its effect on PEMFC performance

Long-term non-uniform temperature, pressure and reaction rates distributions in the proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) may result in local catalyst degradation and deteriorate PEMFC performance. However, the problem of non-uniform catalyst degradation in PEMFC stacks is still incompletely understood due to the lacking of advanced experimental methods and three-dimensional (3D) catalyst aging models. In this study, a 3D PtCo alloy catalyst degradation model under voltage cycles is built and a 25 cm2 PEMFC stack containing realistic cathode, anode as well as coolant flow fields is used as the computational domain to analyze in detail the influence of non-uniform catalyst degradation on the performance of the PEMFC during different coolant conditions. The simulation results show that the non-uniform catalyst degradation is strongly dependent on the cathode flow field structure. It can alleviate non-uniform catalyst degradation as well as contribute to improving PEMFC performance when the coolant flow direction is the same as the air, and both coolant flow rate and inlet temperature also are found to significantly affect the local catalyst degradation behavior. Therefore, an optimally designed cathode flow fields structure as well as good water and heat management during operation can help to extend the service life of the PEMFC.

Effects of the cold plate with airfoil fins on the cooling performance enhancement of the prismatic LiFePO4 battery pack

To maintain the optimal battery performance, it is essential to develop an efficient battery thermal management system for keeping the battery operation temperature within the appropriate range. In this work, a novel design of cold plate featuring airfoil fin channel is developed as a highly effective cooling module of a prismatic LiFePO4 battery pack. The thermal performance of battery and the thermo-hydraulic performance of the cooling module for the cold plate featuring airfoil fin channel, U-type channel and serpentine channel are numerically investigated and compared to reveal the superiority of the novel cold plate. The results indicate that compared with the U-type channel and the serpentine channel, the airfoil fin channel can enhance the total heat dissipation amount by 3.47% and 4.64%, respectively. Besides, the airfoil fin channel can provide the smallest battery maximum temperature and temperature difference under the same coolant flow rate. The airfoil fin channel provides the smallest pressure loss and heat transfer coefficient but the largest overall thermo-hydraulic performance indictor in terms of j/f factor. Under the same requirement of battery cooling performance, the remarkably smaller power consumption is required for the airfoil fin channel compared with the U-type channel and serpentine channel.

Circulating oil-immersed battery thermal management system for cylindrical lithium-ion battery module

Since the lifetime of lithium-ion battery (LIB) is directly related to the operating temperature, it is important to investigate efficient and safe thermal management strategies. This paper mainly studies the effects of pipe position and coolant flow rate on oil-immersed battery thermal management system (BTMS) during circulating cooling. In addition, the theoretical analysis of heat transfer in the 1C, 1.5C and 2C discharge processes is carried out on the oil circulation cooling system. The study found that the temperature of the battery module submerged in the transformer oil dropped by about 34% compared to natural air cooling. In the 9 sets of pipe positions, the inlet and outlet pipeline positions are diagonally distributed, that is, the design of C 4, C 5 and C 6 pipeline positions shows good cooling performance as a whole. Under the condition of high rate discharge, changing the flow rate has a significant impact on the cooling performance of the battery module. The theoretical analysis shows that the influence of forced convection can be ignored in the oil-immersed cooling system at lowRe, and with the increasing increase of Re, forced convection dominates the heat transfer of the system. This study provides a new supplement for the process safety of LIB and BTMS applications.

Experimental study on the immersion liquid cooling performance of high-power data center servers

Highly dense and integrated data centers face key challenges of realizing efficient cooling and improved energy efficiency. To overcome these challenges, this study experimentally investigated the flow and heat transfer characteristics of single-phase immersion liquid cooling (SPILC) systems. The influence of two opposite coolant flow directions on the SPILC performance was examined. Furthermore, a correlation mechanism between coolant thermal properties and SPILC performance was established, along with a control chart for regulating the working conditions of SPILC systems. The results indicate that compared to a pro-gravity flow, an anti-gravity flow scheme reduces the chip case temperature and thermal resistance by 33.8% and 55.6%, respectively, while decreasing the power usage effectiveness (PUE) by 1.4%. Using coolant with the lowest viscosity reduces the chip case temperature and thermal resistance by 9.3% and 10.5%, respectively, while decreasing the PUE by 0.4%. Moreover, the cooling water temperature has a greater impact on the performance of SPILC systems than the volume flow rate of coolants. Additionally, this paper provides control charts for the cooling water temperature and coolant flow rate to improve the PUE while ensuring the safe operation of SPILC systems, with the highest chip temperature and total electricity consumption as indicators.

Thermal and hydraulic characteristics analysis of horizontal lead-bismuth reactor assembly based on sub-channel analysis code

In this paper, the self-developed subchannel analysis program SACOS-PB was used to analyze the thermal hydraulic characteristics of 127 rods in horizontal lead-bismuth reactor under steady state and typical ocean transient conditions. The results of the steady-state analysis showed that the coolant flow and temperature of the vertical assembly were symmetrically distributed, the coolant flow of the horizontal assembly gradually increased along the gravity direction, the temperature rose first and then fell, and the peak coolant temperature of the cross-sectional channel was about 365 °C. Three typical ocean transient operating conditions, inclined, undulating and swing, were also carried out. The results showed that the maximum temperature of the coolant at the exit of the assembly increased with the increase of the transverse heeling angle and the decrease of the trim angle after the incline motion changes the gravity component. Under the undulating and swing conditions, the coolant hydrothermal parameters fluctuated periodically, and the parameter fluctuation period is 10s in line with the oceanic conditions. In the above transient conditions, the peak coolant temperature at the assembly outlet increases and exceeds 365 °C. Compared with the pitching motion on the Y-axis, the rolling and tumbling motion on the X-axis had a significant effect on the coolant flow rate and temperature distribution. The calculation results can provide support for the analysis study of the safety characteristics of lead-bismuth power units under marine conditions.

Investigation of the effect of combustor swirl flow on turbine vane full coverage film cooling

In response to the challenges posed by aviation engine energy consumption and the imperative to reduce NOx emissions, modern advanced aviation engines have increasingly embraced lean-burn and swirl-stabilized combustion chambers. Consequently, the impact of residual swirl flow at the combustion chamber exit on heat transfer to turbine blades has gained prominence. This study delves into the cooling characteristics and variations under swirling inlet conditions, employing both pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) experiments and numerical simulations. The experiments measured film cooling effectiveness (η) on full film cooling blades across different levels of swirl inflow, while numerical simulations dissected flow patterns under swirling and uniform inflow conditions. The results reveal that the extent of film migration does not exhibit a direct proportionality to the level of swirl intensity. Under low swirl conditions (SN = 0.3), film migration is subtle, resulting in a maximum area-averaged η reduction of 3.0%. Conversely, under high swirl conditions (SN = 0.45), film migration becomes notably pronounced, leading to a maximum area-averaged η reduction of 11.9%. Increasing the coolant flow rate mitigates the migration characteristics, albeit with limited effectiveness. The migration of film on the blade surface of full film cooling blades is partially induced by swirling vortices but is primarily attributed to the migration of the leading edge film. Swirling inflow induces the movement of the stagnation-point line, thereby affecting the distribution of cooling air on the blade surface. Finally, this study proposes a combination of measures as an improvement strategy, including an asymmetric counterflow arrangement for the leading-edge holes, a reduction in the outflow angle of the leading-edge holes, and forward-laidback fan-shaped holes. These improvement measures are anticipated to alleviate film migration, reduce the overall uneven film distribution, and increase the average η across the blade.

Effect of composite cooling strategy including phase change material and liquid cooling on the thermal safety performance of a lithium-ion battery pack under thermal runaway propagation

In this work, a composite cooling system including composite phase change material(CPCM) and liquid cooling is designed for battery pack, and the effects of coolant flow rate, battery spacing, thermal conductivity of CPCM, channel number of cooling plate on the safety performance of battery pack under thermal runaway propagation are studied. The results reveal that: (1)Coolant flow rate increase mainly delays the thermal runaway propagation on both sides of cooling plate. When the coolant flow rate is 0.029 m/s, the thermal runaway propagation time through the cooling plate is 32.9s, which is extended by 1.84 times than that at 0.009 m/s (2)Battery spacing increase delays thermal runaway propagation and changes the propagation path. (3)Thermal conductivity reduction of CPCM can significantly delay thermal runaway propagation, because the heat is concentrated in the periphery of the battery and is hard to transfer though CPCM and cooling plate. (4)Compared with other influence factors, channel number of cooling plate has less influence on the overall thermal runaway propagation time. When the channel number is between 5 and 1, the total thermal runaway time changes within 25.5s–27s. The conclusions in this work are helpful to design a safer thermal management system for lithium-ion battery packs.

Multi-objective optimization of a porous diverter plate for a liquid-cooled micro-jet heat sink via surrogate modeling

This work reports on the optimization of a porous diverter plate for a micro-jet heat sink to obtain the optimum jet nozzle diameter and flow opening ratio, which play a significant role in the cooling characteristics of heat sinks for electronic chips. An artificial neural network (ANN) model was used to optimize and predict the sensitivity of different parameters (coolant flow rate, opening ratio, and jet nozzle diameter) on the operation of the heat sink design. It was found that smaller opening ratios and jet nozzle diameters in the range of 2.0–3.2 mm had a positive effect on improving the heat sink's thermal performance. Moreover, the diverter plate's opening ratio had a major sensitivity to pumping power, while the jet nozzle diameter had the lowest sensitivity. Finally, the overall cooling characteristics of all the designs were evaluated using the PPTR parameter, and the results demonstrate that the porous diverter plate with an opening ratio of 0.08 and a jet nozzle diameter of 1.81 mm yielded the optimum design for the porous diverter plate of the heat sink.

Parametric study of water spray cooling on enhanced relatively large surfaces

Spray cooling as an effective cooling technique is widely used in practice. Compared to small heating surfaces, the significantly increase of surface would pose a great challenge to the significant enhancement of spray cooling. Specially, single nozzle spray cooling suffers from non-uniform liquid thin film on a relatively large heating surface, severely inhibiting the formation of efficient thin film evaporation. In this study, two enhanced surfaces such as straight fin surface and cubic fin surface with a relatively large heating surface of 4 cm2 were designed for single nozzle spray cooling. A parametric study was conducted with aims to evaluate the effects of flow rate, spray distance and enhanced surfaces on the formation of thin liquid film and then the performance of spray cooling. Visualization was presented to observe the development of liquid film to elucidate the enhanced mechanism of spray cooling. In this work, spraying height is varying from 20 to 40 mm. Coolant flow rate is ranging from 70 to 100 ml/min. The experimental results show the distribution of liquid film plays an important role in spray cooling, especiallyin the single-phase regime. In two-phase regime, nucleate boiling is significantly boosted on the engineered surfaced. For instance, the cubic fin surface leads to an enhancement of HTC of nearly 24 % compared to that of flat surface.

Design and optimization of a household photovoltaic/thermal collector with serpentine tube: Energy and exergy analysis

Hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) collectors that simultaneously generate electricity and heat have promise for sustainable energy production. However, their performance depends strongly on four key design parameters. These are: panel aspect ratio, serpentine tube pitch, solar intensity, and coolant flow rate. This study optimized these design parameters for a household serpentine-tube PV/T collector using energy and exergy analysis to enhance electrical and thermal efficiencies. Response surface methodology was employed to model the complex relationships between these parameters and the electrical and thermal efficiency responses. Increasing the panel aspect ratio from 0.125 to 8 resulted in 1.99 and 12.10 % improvements for electrical and thermal energy efficiencies along with 1.99 and 26.36 % improvements for electrical and thermal exergy efficiencies. Larger serpentine pitch from 80 to 400 mm decreased all four efficiencies. Higher radiation intensity from 200 to 1000 W/m2 reduced electrical efficiency by 8.36 % but increased thermal efficiency 75.33 %. Increasing the coolant flow rate from 0.1 to 1.4 L/min raised thermal and electrical efficiencies by 167.8 % and 12.4 %, respectively. Single-objective optimization yielded maximum electrical and thermal energy efficiencies of 11.8 % and 63.2 %, while multi-objective optimization gave lower responses. The study provides new insights into design trade-offs between electrical and thermal performance using comprehensive modeling and optimization. The model and methodology can guide significant PV/T design improvements.

Transient flow analysis of pool-type reactor coolant pump under flow coast-down

When power is off, the flow rate of coolant in the RCP decreases rapidly and irregular phenomena appear. However, the inflow coolant tends to be uneven and unsteady due to the design of coolant pool. To simulate the actual situation of pool-type RCP under flow coast-down, Circulation-loop model and Open-border model were established. It provides two prediction methods of the power-off condition of pool-type RCP. The flow rate of Open-border model drops synchronously with rotation speed, and that of Circulation-loop model is dynamically fed back through calculation. Variation trends of external characteristics of the two models are similar. However, it is found that a large-scale and low-speed vortex appears at the horizontal suction part of the pool in Circulation-loop model, blocking the coolant transport channel. Thus, there is obvious fluctuation and hysteretic nature phenomenon in the decline of flow rate compared to the decline of rotation speed in Circulation-loop model.

Applying the MIMO BP Neural Network and Cloud-Based Monitoring of Thermal Behavior for High-Speed Motorized Spindle Units

Understanding the temperature–working condition relationship is crucial for optimizing machining processes to ensure dimensional accuracy, surface finish quality, and overall spindle longevity. Monitoring and controlling spindle temperature through appropriate cooling systems and operational parameters are essential for efficient and reliable machining operations. This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the thermal equilibrium and deformation characteristics of a high-speed motorized spindle unit utilized in grinding machine tools. Through a series of thermal equilibrium experiments and meticulous data acquisition, the study investigates the nuanced influence of various working conditions, including spindle speeds, coolant types, and coolant flow rates, on spindle temperatures and thermal deformations. Leveraging the power of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), predictive models are meticulously developed to accurately forecast spindle behavior. Subsequently, the models are seamlessly transitioned to a cloud computing infrastructure to ensure remote accessibility and scalability, facilitating real-time monitoring and forecasting of spindle performance. The validity and reliability of the predictive models are rigorously assessed through comparison with experimental data, demonstrating excellent agreement and high accuracy in forecasting spindle thermal behavior. Furthermore, the study underscores the critical role of key working condition variables as precise predictors of spindle temperature and thermal deformation, emphasizing their significance in optimizing overall spindle efficiency and performance. This comprehensive analysis offers valuable insights and practical implications for enhancing spindle operation and advancing the field of grinding machine tools.

Design and optimal coolant flow rate analysis of an annular water-cooled automotive exhaust-based thermoelectric generator

This paper introduces a design of an annular water-cooled automotive exhaust-based thermoelectric generator (TEG). A comprehensive numerical model of TEG system is established to investigate the relationship between automotive exhaust temperature and coolant flow rate. Through numerical simulations, it is demonstrated that the implementation of this device can effectively enhance the temperature uniformity at the hot side of the heat exchanger, consequently increasing the TEG's power output. After introducing the annular water-cooled radiator, the temperature uniformity of the thermoelectric module increased by 18.8%. By utilizing the numerical simulation outcomes alongside empirical formulas, calculations for the pump power consumption, maximum output power, and maximum net output power of the thermoelectric module (TEM) are conducted. The maximum net output power can be increased by 3.30%–53.24% by controlling the coolant flow rate. As a result, a relationship curve depicting the average temperature difference between the hot and cold ends of the TEM, in relation to the optimum coolant flow rate, is obtained. This relationship curve serves as a valuable tool for adjusting the radiator's coolant flow rate and augmenting the TEG's net output power, ultimately achieving the objective of heightening the power generation efficiency of the TEG.

Analysis of self-supporting conformal cooling channels additively manufactured by hybrid directed energy deposition for IM tooling

Additive manufacturing (AM) of injection moulding (IM) tools has attracted significant interest in the polymer manufacturing industry for quite some time. However, hybrid manufacturing (HM) using directed energy deposition (DED), which involves concurrent additive and subtractive manufacture, has not been a commonly used process for IM tooling manufacture. This is apparent despite several advantages over the prevalent laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) alternative, including higher build rate, lower cost and integrated machining to directly achieve higher tolerances and surface finish. A key reason for this low utilisation is the limited ability of DED processes to produce circular channel profiles typically used in IM tooling, due to stricter constraints on the manufacturability of overhanging geometry. To address this, a range of self-supporting IM cooling channel profiles suited for hybrid laser and powder-based DED manufacture are proposed in this work. Numerical and experimental evaluations are conducted of the cooling performance of several non-circular conformal cooling channel (NCCC) profiles to identify a profile which achieves the maximum heat transfer for a constant cross-sectional area and coolant flow rate. Experimental studies included AM builds to evaluate the DED manufacturability of the selected NCCC profile on a conformally cooled HM benchmark model, followed by cooling performance characterisation, including a comparison against a reference L-PBF manufactured benchmark model. In conclusion, a shape correcting factor is obtained using response surfaces. This factor is used to convert thermal performance calculations for non-circular profiles to a conventional circular channel profile to simplify the DED manufacturing process for non-circular IM cooling channels.

Transient and Dynamic Simulation of the Fluid Flow through Five-Way Electric Coolant Control Valve of a 100 kW Fuel Cell Vehicle by CFD with Moving Grid Technique

In order to maintain the performance of a fuel cell vehicle, it is essential to maintain a constant temperature of the stack. Therefore, it is very important to distribute the optimal coolant flow rate to each major component under very diverse and rapidly changing dynamic operating conditions. The part responsible for this is a five-way electric coolant valve. Therefore, this study aims to investigate transient dynamic flow characteristics of the fluid flow through a five-way electric coolant valve (PCCV: Penta-Control Coolant Valve). To achieve this goal, this paper attempts a three-dimensional dynamic simulation of the fluid flow through the valve using a commercial CFD solver with moving mesh technique to consider flow inertia and dynamic flow in the opening and closing stages of the ball valve rotating motion. The dynamic flow characteristics and the thermal mixing inside the PCCV ball valve during the opening and closing stages are analyzed. It was found that the discrepancies between dynamic and steady-state simulations are remarkable when fluxes with different levels of enthalpy and momentum flow into the PCCV, leading to strong flow interference and flow inertia, while the discrepancies are relatively small at low rotation speed and weak flow interference. Subsequently, the effect of the dynamic flow characteristics of the valve on the dynamic thermal mixing characteristics at two different ball valve rotation speeds and rotation directions are investigated. It was found that the dynamic flow and thermal mixing characteristics inside the PCCV are greatly affected by the rotation speed, rotation direction, and degree of flow interference between fluxes. It also helps design better coolant control strategies and improves the FCEV thermal management system.

Effects of Nozzle Pitch Adaptation in Micro-Scale Liquid Jet Impingement

With ever increasing integration density of electronic components, the demand for cooling solutions capable of removing the heat generated by such systems grows along with it. It has been shown that a viable answer to this demand is the use of direct liquid jet impingement. While this method can generally be scaled to the cooling of large areas, this is restricted by the necessity of coolant flow rate scaling. In this study, the benefits and restrictions of using increased nozzle pitch to remedy the increasing demand for overall flow rate are investigated. To this end, a model is validated against experimental findings and then used for computational fluid dynamics simulations, exploring effects of the pitch change for micro-scale nozzle diameters and nozzle-to-target spacings. It is found that while this method is efficient in adjusting the tradeoff between total coolant flow rate and pressure drop up to a certain pint, the occurrence of a hydraulic jump in the cavity causes a deterioration of its effect for large nozzle pitches.

A Comparative Numerical Analysis of Cold Plates for Thermal Management of Chips With Hotspots

Abstract Thermal and hydraulic performances of seven water-cooled minichannel cold plates with different internal structures are compared using numerical analysis. Recent increasing demands for high-performance computing have led to serious challenges in the thermal management of electronic devices. In addition to dangerous on-chip temperatures, heterogeneous integration and local regions of elevated temperatures (hotspots) lead to nonuniform chip-level temperature distributions. As a result, the lifespan and reliability of electronic devices are adversely impacted. Due to the limitation of the air-cooled heat sinks, several new methods, such as liquid-cooled microchannel cold plates are developed to remedy these challenges. The objective of this work is to provide a comparative numerical study of the effectiveness of different minichannel cold plate internal structures in the thermal management of a chip with a nonuniform power map and a hotspot. Cold plate thermal resistance, on-chip temperature uniformity, and pump power were the metrics used for this comparison. For four coolant inlet flow rates within the laminar regime, it is seen that increasing the inlet flowrate enhances the thermal resistance of all cold plate designs while creating less uniformity in chip-level temperature distribution relative to the conventional straight microchannels. Concentrating pin fins on the hotspot showed a 7.2% reduction in thermal resistance, despite increasing temperature nonuniformity by about 7.6%. However, it is observed that hotspot-focused pin fins are more effective in lowering the chip's maximum temperature. Obtaining lower chip-level nonuniformity may be possible by modifying the inlet and outlet conditions of the cold plates.

Cooling and preheating performance of dual-active lithium-ion battery thermal management system under harsh conditions

A dual-active battery thermal management system (DA-BTMS) combining liquid cooling with thermoelectric cooling is proposed to improve thermal management. Through numerical simulation and physical experiments, the optimal configuration of the system is determined by comparing three different thermoelectric cooler (TEC) arrangements, and the effects of the TEC’s input current and coolant mass flow rate on the batteries’ heat dissipation are investigated. In addition, the TEC’s cold and hot ends can be interchanged to preheat the battery in a cold environment by reversing the input current. The optimal step-preheating strategy is put forward aiming at the preheating of batteries. The results show that, the DA-BTMS with pure liquid cooling can easily control the temperature within an ideal temperature range with the optimal coolant mass flow rate of 0.59 g/s at a discharge rate of 2C and ambient temperature of 40 °C. While the discharge rate is 3C, DA-BTMS can still reliably keep the system under the action of TEC auxiliary cooling. At an over-high ambient temperature of 50 °C, the system maximum temperature sharply decreases from 50 °C to 42.32 °C at a discharge rate of 2C with the optimal input current of TEC 1.6 A owning to the refrigeration action of TEC. The Step-preheating method is put forward and the optimal strategy is determined, which can ensure the preheating rate of 0.77 °C/min for the battery pack. The proposed system not only improves the space utilization of the battery pack but also maintains the maximum temperature of the battery module in a suitable range under harsh cold and hot ambient conditions. Compared with the conventional pure TEC cooling method, it can effectively save energy consumption.

Improving turbine endwall overall cooling effectiveness using curtain cooling and redistributed film-hole layouts: an experimental and computational study

Abstract To enhance the cooling deficiency that occurs in a baseline endwall using axially-arranged cooling holes, this paper proposes a new locally-enhanced hole layout using curtain cooling and fan-shaped film holes being arranged on iso-Mach lines. The objective of cooling hole re-design is to minimize secondary flows and thus to provide better film coverage. In experiments, Infrared thermography techniques are applied to validate overall cooling effectiveness of the newly-designed endwall, and aero-thermal fields at the cascade exit are detected by five-hole and thermocouple probes. Additionally, computational fluid dynamic simulations are performed to provide complementary flow insights. A comparison with the baseline hole layout reveals that for a given total coolant flow rate, the newly-designed endwall significantly improves the cooling performance by up to 27% without a noticeable aerodynamic penalty, resulting in a lower and more uniform temperature field. Curtain coolant effectively suppresses the development of horseshoe vortex and provides adequate thermal protection for leading-edge junctures and pressure-side corner regions. The redistribution of fan-shaped film holes reinforces the cooling performance in the passage throat and trailing edge regions. At low and high total mass flow rates, the coolant split between various cooling sources has a substantial impact on cooling performance.

A PARAMETRIC STUDY ON THE THERMAL HOMOGENEITY OF VAPOR CHAMBER IN A BATTERY COOLING SYSTEM

For the battery cooling system, the large temperature difference of the coolant between the inlet and outlet leads to a decrease in the thermal homogeneity of batteries. To improve the thermal homogeneity, a designed composite liquid cooling system was analyzed combined with a grooved vapor chamber and a cooling plate. The parametric study on the thermal homogeneity was conducted including the height, width, length of grooved wick, filling ratio, flow rate of coolant, heat flux, and inclination angle. The results show that a preferable thermal homogeneity can be obtained at 20% filling ratio as the height and width of the channel increase, especially under the positive inclination angle of 20°. The heat source surface can be kept uniform within the temperature difference of 5°C in spite of the temperature rise of coolant up to 11.5°C under the flowing rate of 8.32 × 10<sup>-4</sup> kg/s. An empirical correlation of the "suppression ratio," containing the structural and operating parameters, is summarized to evaluate the suppressing function of the vapor chamber on the temperature difference of coolant. This research is aimed to provide a scientific basis for predicting the thermal homogeneity of the vapor chamber in a battery liquid cooling system.